James Madison

Despite his accomplishments, Madison is perhaps the least known of the nation's Founding Fathers — although his contemporaries had a deep appreciation of his abilities and his contributions. At the Constitutional Convention of 1787, one fellow delegate praised Madison as possessing both the intellectual depth of a scholar and the practical wisdom of a politician, and observed that he was involved in the "management" of every major issue. His peers hailed him as the "Father of the Constitution," and scholars agree that no one had a greater role in shaping American Constitutional theory and in framing the particulars of representative government than James Madison. James Madison's great investigation into the principles and ideas of government occurred at his beloved Montpelier, where he read, thought, and conceived of the foundation of democracy upon which our country still stands.

Early Years

James Madison was born in Port Conway, Virginia, on March 16, 1751. The oldest child in a family of twelve, he grew up on his father's plantation, Montpelier, in Orange County, Virginia. In 1762, James Madison went to his first school, located in King and Queen County, Virginia. At the age of 16, he returned to Montpelier to continue his education with a tutor. In August 1769, James began college at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), graduating in the spring of 1771.

Madison began his 41-year political career in December 1774, when he was appointed to the Orange County Committe of Safety.

"Father of the Constitution"

He arrived quietly in Philadelphia on May 3, 1787, to attend the Constitutional Convention. The Convention convened to discuss the structure of the U.S. government.

Madison was only 36 years old, but already had an enviable reputation. He gained attention while serving on the committees that drafted the first Constitution of Virginia and the Virginia Declaration of Rights in 1776. He also served as an elected representative to the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress. These experiences prepared Madison for his memorable performance at the Constitutional Convention. When the work was done, Madison's name resounded throughout the country, as he was given the title "Father of the Constitution" by his colleagues.

In the 1780s, as the Revolutionary War gave way to an uneasy peace in a new nation, the 13 states found themselves dealing with the difficult question, "What do we do now?"

Madison Does His Homework

The first try at government under the Articles of Confederation (1781-1788) was riddled with problems from the beginning. The individual states had their own interests and found it difficult to hand over power to a central authority. Under the Articles, the United States found itself unable to stabilize the currency, regulate commerce among the states, levy taxes, make capital improvements, pay off war debts, and effectively address individual rights issues such as religious freedom.

James Madison was among the first to recognize that a stronger central government would be critical to the new nation's survival. Always the scholar, Madison undertook an exhaustive study of government structures in world history. He researched ancient and modern confederacies, outlining reasons why earlier attempts at democracy and representative government failed. Madison's research convinced him that the Articles would not withstand the onslaughts of state interests. Madison's ideas eventually crystallized into "the Virginia Plan," where the interests of individuals, states, and the national authority were balanced and mixed into "an extended republic." He also sought the counsel of influential Americans whose support was vital if any changes in the government were to take place. George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Edmund Randolph were among the prominent politicians to support the "Virginia Plan."

The Constitutional Convention

When the Convention finally began in Philadelphia on May 14, 1787, many feared that the young country was near collapse. During the long, hot summer that followed, the 55 delegates hammered out a new framework of government. Madison lobbied strongly for his positions, proposed compromises, took copious notes and, in general, served as a principal participant. In the end, many of Madison's proposals were incorporated into the Constitution, including representation in Congress according to population, support for a strong national executive, the need for checks and balances among the three branches of government, and the idea of a federal system that assigned certain powers to the national government and reserved others for the states.

Madison's work, however, was not complete since the Constitution still faced challenges with the state ratification conventions. Along with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, Madison wrote a series of essays, The Federalist Papers, that argued for ratification. The Constitution faced stiff opposition, even in Madison's home state. Virginia's support would be absolutely critical, so he lobbied his fellow Virginians hard for its passage. His efforts were rewarded in June 1788, when New Hampshire and Virginia ratified the Constitution, and it became the law of the land.

Marriage

James was introduced to the Quaker widow Dolley Payne Todd in the spring of 1794. The summer courtship of James and Dolley was brief, and the couple married at Dolley's sister's home on September 15, 1794. James and Dolley were married for 41 years and never had children of their own. Dolley's first marriage had produced two children, and Dolley's son John Payne Todd was raised as James Madison's son.

Secretary of State in the Age of Expansion

Nature has given the use of the Mississippi to those who may settle on its waters, as she gave to the U.S. their independence.

James Madison to the Marquis de Lafayette, March 20, 1785

At the turn of the 19th century, the U.S. population was bursting at the seams. In January 1803, President Thomas Jefferson secretly called upon his cabinet to help develop a plan for exploration beyond the muddy waters of the Mississippi. Secretary of State James Madison was given the task of coordinating negotiations for more land from King Ferdinand VII of Spain; Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul of France; Alexander I of Russia; and King George III of England. Madison worked with American dignitaries to negotiate navigation rights to the Mississippi River, a right of deposit in the port of New Orleans, and safe passage to the Pacific Ocean through Native-American and foreign-controlled territories in North America.

By January 1803, an historic chain of events set into motion a tidal wave of change—one that would revolutionize the course of U.S. history. While Jefferson's political and private reasons were not always in sync, he never varied in his determination to discover a route to the Pacific. Jefferson's public claim was for the need of increased commerce on the Mississippi, but privately he and Madison firmly believed in western expansion for an ideal agrarian society.

The shape of the United States changed with the stroke of a pen, and from that point forward the country began to expand with a tide of American explorers and settlers—all surging west. The purchase of Louisiana in 1803 gave President Jefferson a perfect, and legal, opportunity to send American explorers out from St. Louis, across the "Rock Mountains" and up the Missouri, Snake, and Columbia Rivers. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were selected to lead the expedition that produced an enormous amount of biological, geographical, and scientific data. Jefferson and Madison were wed to the premise that nothing could, or should, stop Americans from reaching the Pacific Ocean in their quest for land, natural resources, and personal liberties.

The Louisiana Purchase

Every eye in the U.S. is now fixed on this affair of Louisiana.

Jefferson to Livingston, April 18, 1802.

The Louisiana Territory was ceded to Spain from France in 1762, but by 1800 the land was reclaimed by France in the Treaty of Idelfonso. In 1801, when Jefferson and Madison heard rumors of this treaty, they sent Charles Pinckney to Spain and Robert Livingston to France to negotiate for a small portion of land along the Mississippi River, thus securing passage to New Orleans. President Jefferson feared that if French troops took possession of the port, "we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation" against Napoleon's military power. Jefferson did not want to become too allied with England, his country's old nemesis.

When negotiations stalled, Madison sent James Monroe to complete the deal with Napoleon. France, in debt and encumbered elsewhere, offered approximately 900,000 square miles of the Louisiana Territory for $15,000,000; roughly $44.00 an acre. Spain, considering this action as a break of the Treaty of Idelfonso, considered retaliation against France, but a lack of military strength and funds prevented any action other than written reprimands. King Ferdinand VII of Spain, who had little choice in the matter, reluctantly approved the purchase.

On December 8, 1803, Secretary of State Madison received written confirmation of the sale from his agents in New Orleans, "we announce to you the peaceful Transfer of the Province of Louisiana by the Commissioners of Spain." Twelve days later, official representatives William C.C. Claiborne and James Wilkinson accepted transfer of Louisiana from French authorities in New Orleans. Immediately after the nation's flags were exchanged, Claiborne became the Governor of Louisiana and Wilkinson became its military commander. In March 1804, another ceremony took place in St. Louis and control of the Mississippi was at last in the hands of the U.S. government.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition

Madison's role in the Lewis and Clark expedition was simple—secure the purchase of territory west of the Mississippi so that any explorations henceforth would be legal. Today, when asked what Madison did for the expedition, many claim that he "wrote the check" that launched the Corps of Discovery's 28-month journey—and in a way, he did just that. Secretary of State Madison oversaw territorial affairs, and as such, was responsible for signing Lewis and Clark's paychecks and reimbursements for sundries procured along the trail.

"One Uniform laced Coat, one silver Epaulet, one Dirk, and belt, one hanger and belt, one pistol and one fowling piece, all private property in exchange for Canoe, Horses and c. for public service during the expedition - $135."

— Meriwether Lewis to Madison, March, 1806

It was late spring 1803 before planning was completed and all necessary equipment and personnel procured. Even the ladies of Washington lent a hand to acquire much of the needed material and supplies for the expedition. Dolley Madison was among Washington's society women who gave of their silver utensils, cloth for sacks, wax for candles, lamps, oil, cooking spices, canned goods, dried goods, writing accouterments, and clothing.

"...a great deal of interest was taken by the cabinet and especially the ladies. They were much entertained and ere their departure on their perilous journey, souvenirs were sent them, and they were fitted up with Camp equipage and every thing thought to be suitable for them..."

"Mrs. Madison, with her usual sympathy was very much distressed for she believed they never could return from that land of savages—however they did return after an absence of four years. Full of hair breath escapes and marvelous adventures and as many specimens as they could bring from so far off in the wilderness!"

— Mary E. E. Cutts' Memoirs, ca. 1850

Lewis and Clark named rivers and streams for members of the Corps, their friends, family, and some government officials. When the company reached the headwaters of the Missouri in July 1805, they honored President Jefferson, Secretary of State Madison, and Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin by naming the three tributaries that made up the Missouri after the statesmen. The Madison River Valley is almost as wild and untamed today as it was 150 years ago.

Twenty-eight months after the corps began the journey, it returned to Washington laden with gifts from Native-American dignitaries, samples of flora and fauna collected along the route, and notebooks filled with scientific data. President Jefferson, excited by the depth of knowledge gained by this trip, began to send other explorers west. This "great unknown" was the next, and possibly greatest, frontier—and thousands of Americans were ready to risk life and limb to obtain a piece of it. Lewis and Clark opened the west, and America was changed forever.

Madison as Fourth President

At the conclusion of Jefferson's two terms, James Madison won the 1808 presidential election and took the oath of office the following March. Madison's first term was troubled by tensions between England and France that led British ships to forcibly stop U.S. trading ships and seize American seamen. Furthermore, frontiersmen blamed the British for stirring up American Indian resistance to western settlement, and some expansionists had sights on Canada.

Finally giving up on a policy of economic coercion, the United States declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812. After severe American losses on the Canadian front, the British marched on Washington. Madison rode east from the White House to review the American troops and, as fighting broke out, became the only U.S. president to command on the field while in office. His efforts failed and, on August 24, 1814, the British burned the U.S. Capitol and the White House. Upon leaving Washington, the British then launched a naval bombardment of Fort McHenry in Baltimore. The assault failed, but the battle inspired Francis Scott Key to pen the words to The Star-Spangled Banner, which would become the nation's anthem.

Four months later, December 24, 1814, the warring parties settled on terms of peace. In what some have called the "Second War of Independence" (and what opponents dubbed "Mr. Madison's War"), the War of 1812 solidified the United States' place within the international community.

Known for his personal integrity and fair-handedness, Madison scrupulously observed individual and political rights even in the midst of war. As the Capitol and White House were rebuilt, the last years of Madison's second term saw economic growth, westward expansion, and ushered in a nationalistic "era of good feeling."

Retirement and Death

When James Madison's second term as president ended in 1817, he and Dolley retired to Montpelier. In retirement Madison stayed active and interested in politics. In 1819 he founded the American Colonization Society dedicated to freeing slaves and transporting them to the West Coast of Africa. Madison served on the board of visitors at the University of Virginia, and briefly came out of retirement at the age of 79 to attend the 1829 Virginia Constitutional Convention. On June 28, 1836, James Madison died at Montpelier at the age of 85 and was buried in the Madison Family Cemetery on the mansion grounds.